Table of Contents
Prevalence of homosexuality
Life History Theory
LHT & Homosexuality
LHT Family Lifestyle Markers for homosexuality
Is Homosexuality an Alternative To Reproduction?
Female Sexual Fluidity
Discussion and Conclusions
Prevalence of homosexuality
The Lesbian/Gay, Bisexual and Trans (LGBTQ), movement continues to grow. Gallup found that 4.5% of Americans are LGBTQ. Gallup also provided a breakdown by gender for males (3.9%) and females (5.1%). Although it seems easy to separate homosexuality into the five categories mentioned above, as with all things closer to an analysis, there is much more. These numbers are increasing, according to Gallup.
In the LGBTQ category are lesbians and gay men, as well as bisexuals from the polar male and feminine ends. Non-binary, gender fluid, and non-gender-conforming, etc. ), and transgendered personss. There are also subsets of transgender and genderqueer peoples. The focus of this literature review will not be on subtypes within the spectrum, but focusing on the adaptive strategies of homosexuality as it pertains to adaptation.Homosexuality, according to Nila, Barthes, Crochet, Suryobroto, & Raymond (2015), should be disappearing according to their analysis of Male Homosexual Behaviors (MHP) and cited material which indicates MHP’s heritability. Nila, et al. (2015) note that homosexuality has been documented in numerous historical texts throughout history. Their reports also mention the diverse tendencies to find eastern societies with higher homosexuality rates than those of western societies.
Life History TheoryThe Life History Theory (LHT), is used often to describe homosexuality. Luoto, Krams and Rantala (2017) use LHT to describe effort expenditure over life. They also analyze the tendency toward personal growth versus the tendency toward reproductive acts. LHT can be used as a tool to identify causal relationships between mating behaviors and organisms by looking at their life cycles, the conditions they are born into, and their strategies for reproduction.
Luoto et al. 2017 note that life history strategies consist of a mix of psychological, somatic, developmental variables. LHT assigns different gendered strategies based upon biological facts. LHT is often considered by evolutionary psychology because it focuses on the evolution of an organism across history and analyses existing behavior partly based upon previous evolutionary adaptive changes.
LHT, HomosexualityLuoto et al. The hypothesis of homosexuality and bisexuality among women was proposed by Luoto et. al. (2017). This is because of their life history. This means that women who are in danger of losing their children to sex resort to quicker reproduction methods, including promiscuity. Figueredo (2018) suggests that this must be categorized as a sex specific phenomenon. Without it, male fast-life strategies would naturally include homosexuality. However, Figueredo (2018) does not believe so.
Figueredo also believes that intrauterine factors can determine homosexuality. These include homosexuality and its subtypes. Figueredo (2018) discusses the possibility of early life being more unstable due to environmental factors. Negative childhood conditions, unstable parent relationships, and absence of father figures are some of the factors that make homosexual males more vulnerable than heterosexual males. Figueredo (2018) also discusses how these conditions can lead to more masculinized LHT strategies being used by women, which might encourage them to adopt feminine LHT strategies. This is counterintuitive to LHT because the language used in describing these roles is gendered. Figueredo (2018) says that men should be hyper masculine in adverse situations. This could mean having many children with many mothers and not just homosexual strategies.
LHT Family life markers for homosexuality. Other traits and events can be used to predict homosexuality. Petterson, Dixson, Little, & Vasey (2018) highlight that transgender or cis-gendered men have greater family size, older brothers, smaller families, and a lower rate of offspring production. There is also a higher level of childhood separation anxiety and gender nonconformity.
All of these traits describe either a highly competitive market in terms of sexual partners or instability/insecurity in the structure of their family unit that, these markers transcend cultural boundaries to result in similar rates of homosexuality. Diamond & Alley (2018) point out that high levels in adversity can lead to rapid sexual maturation and sexual debut as well as increased risk-taking and sexual behavior. Alternative strategies may be necessary to ensure that genetic reproduction is possible if one is unable to find a partner. These strategies can be found in psychology or development, but to what extent are they rooted?
Petterson and colleagues measured the responses times and rated their attractiveness using a seven-point Likert scale that was used to measure the response rates of trans-gendered and cis-gendered men. (2018) found no differences in response rates for males. However, they were more attracted to females than to males. Both groups spent longer viewing male composite photographs than female composite photographs and both groups rated themselves more attractive. Petterson explained that this was due to psychological and biologic similarities between the groups. These conclusions make it clear that there is no one-size-fits all approach to nature or nurture determination.
Homosexuality is an alternative to reproduction? (2015) provide an alternative explanation of homosexuality’s adaptability. Nila, et al. Nila et.al. suggest that kin selection is key to the continuation of a gay strategy. This can be achieved by “helping” others and using behavior patterns similar to matrilineal strategies. The guarantee of survival in another can be achieved by a homosexual male by favoring his nieces or nephews. Gaulin (2004), pp. 359. Male reproduction was mysterious before paternity testing. 359) in his description for low paternity probabilities.
Resources in matrilineal society are given to the children by the sister, not the direct descendant. This may be due to the evolutionary reason that siblings share at least 25% genes. This is evident because women are guaranteed maternity in primitive societies. A nephew and an uncle will share 12.5% of their genes. This allows homosexuality to act as a shield for one’s genes, without putting at risk the loss of kin. This strategy works only if one sibling creates multiple offsprings that create a 50% percentage of genes.
Based on their (2015) hypothesis, Nila and colleagues predicted that nieces or nephews would be given resources. This was based upon previous research that had shown higher levels of altruism among homosexual, bisexual, and males. They also described indirect mating as well as an avuncular tendency. Even though they have fewer genes, homosexuals can sacrifice their mating potential to make it more likely that they will continue their family line. It is also possible among bisexual and lesbian women, even though Nila et all. is discussing male subjects.
Nila and colleagues found that while homosexual males experienced low direct reproduction rates early in life, indirect mating success increased as men age. This is consistent to slower LHT mating strategies. This is consistent with LHT’s slower mating strategies. Although this study was done in Samoa, which is less industrialized than the United States, it makes sense that this could also be true in other industrialized countries, due to the possibility of sharing resources further away.
Female Sexual FluidityLHT strategies can be more varied that strict heterosexual and homophobic preference. Diamond & Alley (2018) analyzed Luoto et.al.’s (2018) findings to determine if there was any difference in women’s sexual behaviours and attraction. Diamond & Alley recognize that there has been research on bisexual and exclusive women. Their analysis of Luoto et al. (2018) findings and methods revealed that bisexuals have a range of problematic interactions with their environment. Diamond & Alley also make a distinction between heterosexuality and homosexuality. They show that women’s sexual pleasures are separate from reproduction and that women may be more interested in pleasure than reproduction.
Diamond & Alley (2018) highlight this distinction by citing previous research showing that women who sex with females report greater satisfaction and more orgasms compared to women who only sex with males. Diamond & Alley argue that women may have a more fluid sexuality than men, and suggest that all women might be capable of having sexual contact.
This is contrary to heterosexual males reporting to be sexually active, or gay males. They are more likely not to have sexual relations with female partners than male partners. There is no reason to doubt that women may try to combine these strategies, in order to transmit their genes direct and indirectly. However, pleasure is decoupled.
Discussion & ConclusionsHomosexuality, by the author’s account, is an effective strategy in genetic reproduction. Although homosexuality can be as effective in genetic reproduction, it is not the most productive. The phenomenon seems to be more about gene production. Because homosexuality is a shared trait with a sibling, patrilineal strategies and homosexuality serve to preserve genetic shares and not create more competition for resources. Because of their sibling’s previous success, homosexuals provide sexual support and resources to the nieces and nephews they are sharing. This makes it easier for successful siblings to mate, and allows them to be more flexible later in life.
In an environment that is more chaotic homosexuality may be a good option. Let’s take, for example, these two brothers. One brother may be heterosexual and the other homosexual. If there is a shortage of food, the gay brother can help the heterosexual brother. This allows the homosexual brother to help his offsprings, while also increasing their chances of survival. Because his progeny are more resourceful, the heterosexual brother will accept this behavior. Both brothers are more secure in passing on their genes. This strategy protects all the genes involved, even though it’s not intuitive.
LHT favours a clear tendency to say that high levels of adversity are associated with fast reproductive strategies for both sexes. Low levels of adversity, however, can cause rapid reproduction. LHT is largely based on gender and sexuality. LHT models need to be modified as more information is available about the sex spectrums and homosexuality. The model presented in the literature seems to be different to other understandings. The final aspect of homosexuality is to be disentangled and studied in greater detail, including gay males, lesbians, bisexuality as well gender queer sexualities and gender transgender.
