Introduction…Emile Durkheim was born in 1800s and is a philosopher and sociologist whose ideas still hold true today. Durkheim took the theories of Comte and other philosophers and combined them to come up with his own theories. Many of these theories can still be applied today to analyze and explain modern society’s factors.
Theory…Like Karl Marx’s, Emile Durkheim believed strongly in functional development essentialism. He believed that men invariably enter into indefinite relationships …” as a result of the social productions they experience (Marx [1859]1992 :425). In other words, humans use extrinsic relationship to work together and transform their relationships into materialistic ideas. Although Marx and Durkheim both believed in essentialism they had very different theories about human nature. Marx believed that human nature could not be static. However, Marx believed that history and society change over time. Durkheim believed that people are greatly affected by their own self-interests and insatiable needs for satisfaction. Durkheim asserts that there is an ongoing tension between the selfish nature of the human being and the egoistic nature of the human mind (Ritzer, 2011). Durkheim claims that there is a constant tension between the egoistic human nature and the altruistic social consciousness of morality that helps control the selfish human nature (Ritzer 2011). Durkheim believed society could not be reduced to a few individuals. He saw society as an entire system (Ritzer, 2011). Durkheim’s concept of social fact was created. He stated that a social face was any way of acting, whether it is fixed or not, that can exert an external constraint on an individual. Or, again, any way of acting that is common to all members of a society and is independent of individual manifestations. (Ritzer 2011, 184). Social facts can be explained and studied at a societal level. Durkheim believed in both material and not-material social facts but he was more interested in the nonmaterial.
Ritzer 2011, Durkheim’s nonmaterial social facts, which relate to his ideas about human nature, include morality (Ritzer 2011). Durkheim believed the human nature of self-interests is driven by uncontrollable passions. Accordingly to Ritzer (2011):189, “society must have a strong common morality” in order for these passions to be controlled. Although Durkheim believed society as a whole couldn’t be moral, he felt that society was at risk of becoming immoral if it became only the sum its self-interests (Ritzer 11:189). Therefore, society must value morality to ensure that the greater good doesn’t get in the way of human nature. Durkheim believed in the importance of a collective conscience for society to be able have morals, ideas, and values. Durkheim describes collective conscience as “the sum total of beliefs or sentiments common among average citizens of a single society which creates a determinate systems that has its life” (Durkheim, 1893/2011.190). Durkheim believes the collective conscience is vital in determining other social facts. This creates a structure that reflects common values and beliefs in a society. (Ritzer, 2011).
Durkheim also developed a theory about the division of labor. Durkheim can expand his idea of labor division into dynamic density and mechanical solidarity. He also discusses how these theories should be viewed in modern society. Durkheim believes that the world’s population changes as it evolves and dynamic density increases. Ritzer 195 defines dynamic density as “the number and amount of interactions that occur between people” (Durkheim). Calhoun 2012 also states that as humanity has advanced from primitive societies to modern ones, people have moved away from mechanical solidarity and toward organic solidarity. Primitive societies used to have a high collective consciousness and mechanical solidarity. This was because the societies shared the same interests and had similar jobs. As population increased and dynamic density increased, societies developed an organic solidarity. With a lower collective conscious and a higher level of labor division, society has become more cohesive. The success of divisions of labor depends on the exact path it follows. This is because they are a frame-invariant theory. Calhoun 2012 states that anomie is when societies move too fast or are interrupted by outside forces.
Analysis…Durkheim’s theories and ideas, or lack of these theories, can be related to modern day issues of education, race, and class. Elijah Anderson wrote “Decline in Black Community” in which he stated that in the past segregated black communities had their doctors, lawyers, schools and barber shops. Many of these characteristics are not present today because society is less segregated. However, today’s society still has a lot of segregation. For example, urban schools are more diverse than suburban schools. Jonathon Kozol wrote about the inequalities seen in New York City schools. Kozol 2005. Kozul spent a lot more time in New York City and the surrounding suburbs researching schools.
Finances are a major inequality between suburban and City schools. New York City schools lack the funds to upgrade their buildings and grounds. Many schools had buildings that were in disarray (Kozol 2005). In one school for instance, “a stream water flowed down one the main stairs on a rainy morning where green molds were growing” (Kozul 2006:40-41). Another school ordered that windows in the school’s building not be cleaned due to rotten frames and panes falling into the street. These problems were not the only ones. Due to a lack of funds to expand, schools have had to maintain their current size in spite of a growing student population. This resulted in students being forced into rooms that had no windows, air or seats. Also, students were placed in buildings that were not designed as schools. A second problem was the insufficient financial resources that New York City schools faced. These forced them to cut arts and music programs and reduce the number nurses who were available to students (Kozol2005). The teacher’s salary is third. In New York City, the average teacher’s salary was $53,000. It was higher in the suburbs where it was closer to $95,000. The inequality in schools is largely due to the financial situation.
These schools also have a significant inequality due to the fact that the New York City schools are predominantly Hispanic and black while the suburban schools are predominantly white. Children of low-income families and of other races are considered less desirable than the children from wealthy suburban areas. Kozol says, “She [a student] was $8,000 babies. She would have needed to drive to suburbs to be able to see a $18,000 infant. These children are disadvantaged because of their race and class. Children as young as five years old are not allowed to attend preschools. Their parents are often uninformed and unable support their education.
Durkheim’s theories can help you understand and analyze the financial, race and class problems that were created in New York City schools. Durkheim would be able to explain that these issues didn’t arise from rapid change or crisis, but the racial/economic issues kept these areas in mutual dependency and prevented them from achieving successful divisions of labor. As such, this section of society never reached organic solidarity. It became an anomie. Durkheim’s theory of the forced separation of labor, which Durkheim argues can explain the anomie at schools. In this scenario, “outdated norms, expectations, and individuals can be forced into positions to which they are not well suited.” According to Ritzer (2011:197), factors such as customs, wealth, and prestige can supersede an individual’s aptitude or credentials when it comes to job assignments. American society still values the wealth of white people over the lower-class nonwhites. This forces the division of labor between the two groups.
In these areas, social facts such as morality or class conscience are less important which can lead to inequalities. The non-white communities are greatly affected by these disconnects. It is extremely unsettling to live among children of different races who receive a much lower education than their counterparts. This causes a large divide between the schools in the cities and those in the suburbs, as Kozol explains.
Durkheim said that if the society went from mechanical solidarity toward organic solidarity, it would not have had to be affected by racism and classism. There would then be greater mutual dependencies between different classes. These dependencies would allow children with different races to attend schools together, allow for equal educational opportunities, enable them to play on the playgrounds and learn in safe, healthy learning environments.
Durkheim’s theories, which are still applicable today, can explain why inequality still exists in many aspects of society.
